Glossary
Beta Cells
Cells that make insulin. These cells are found in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
Blood Glucose Meter
A hand-held machine, powered by batteries, that tests blood glucose (sugar) levels. A drop of blood (obtained by pricking a finger or the forearm) is sucked or placed on to a small strip that is inserted in the meter. The meter calculates and displays the blood sugar level.
Calories
Units representing the amount of energy released (heat generated) when food is burned. This is often not the same as the energy obtained by the body when the same food is consumed. The measurement is made in a bomb calorimeter. Carbohydrate, protein and fat are the primary sources of calories in the diet, but alcohol also provides calories. If all calories consumed aren't used as energy or not absorbed, they may be stored as fat.
Carbohydrate
Made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, they can be simple sugars (such as glucose, fructose or lactose) or starches of varying complexity (as in bread, pasta, beans). Carbohydrate is one of the three major sources of calories in the diet. Carbohydrate is broken down into glucose during digestion and is the main nutrient that raises blood sugar levels.
Cholesterol
A waxy, fat-like substance used by the body to build cell walls and make certain vitamins and hormones. The liver produces enough cholesterol when we eat animal products. Eating too much cholesterol and saturated fat can cause the blood cholesterol to rise and collect along the inside walls of blood vessels. This is a risk factor for heart attack and stroke.
Counterregulatory (stress) hormones
Hormones released during stressful situations. These hormones include glucagon, epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), cortisol and growth hormone. They cause the liver to release glucose and the cells to release fatty acids for extra energy. If there's not enough insulin present in the body, these extra fuels can lead to hyperglycemia and ketoacidosis.
DCCT
The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. This was a 10-year study sponsored by the National Institutes of Health. Over 1,400 people with type 1 diabetes followed either conventional therapy (usually, two insulin injections a day) or intensive therapy (multiple daily injections or an insulin pump). The study proved, that tight blood sugar control reduces the risk of diabetic complications in Type 1 patients.
Diabetes
A disease in which the body cannot produce insulin or cannot use insulin to its full potential. It is characterised by high blood sugar levels.
Diabetes Educator
A health care professional who teaches people who have diabetes how to manage their diabetes. Some diabetes educators are certified diabetes educators (CDEs). Diabetes educators are found in hospitals, physician offices, managed care organisations home health care and other settings.
Diabetogenic
Causing diabetes. For example, some drugs cause lood glucose levels to rise, resulting in diabetes.
D-phenylalanine derivative
A class of oral medicine for type 2 diabetes that lowers blood glucose levels by helping the pancreas make more insulin right after meals. (Generic name: nateglinide.)
Dypuytren's contracture
A condition associated with diabetes in which the fingers and the palm of the hand thicken and shorten, causing the fingers to curve inward.
Endocrine gland
A group of specialised cells that release hormones into the blood. For example, the islets in the pancreas, which secrete insulin, are endocrine glands.
Euglycemia
A normal level of glucose in the blood.
Exchanges
Food groups used in the American Diabetes Association, American Dietetic Association Exchange Lists for Meal Planning. Foods are divided into three basic groups: carbohydrates, meat and meat substitutes, and fats. Each serving of food has about the same amount of carbohydrate, protein, fat and calories as other foods on that list and can be ‘exchanged' or traded for any other food on the same list.
Fasting blood glucose test
A check of a person's blood glucose level after the person has not eaten for 8 to 12 hours (usually overnight). This test is used to diagnose pre-diabetes and diabetes. It is also used to monito people with diabetes.
Fats
The most concentrated source of calories in the diet. Saturated fats are found primarily in animal products. Unsaturated fats mainly come from plants and can be monounsaturated (olive or canola oil) or polyunsaturated (corn and other oils). Excess intake of fat, especially saturated fat and trans-fatty acids, can cause elevated blood cholesterol, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke.
Fibre
The parts of plants that the body can't digest, such as fruit and vegetable skins. Fibre aids in the normal functioning of the digestive system, specifically the intestinal tract.
50/50 Insulin
Premixed insulin that is 50 percent intermediate-acting insulin and 50 percent short-acting (regular) insulin.
Fructosamine test
Measures the number of blood glucose molecules linked to pretein molecules in the blood. The test provides information on the average blood glucose level for the past 3 weeks.
Gestational Diabetes
Diabetes that develops during pregnancy. The mother's blood sugar rises due to hormones secreted during pregnancy, and the mother cannot produce enough insulin to handle the higher blood sugar levels. Although gestational diabetes usually goes away after pregnancy, about 60 percent of women who've had gestational diabetes eventually develop type 2 diabetes.
Glucagon
A hormone produced by the pancreas that raises blood sugar levels. An injectable preparation is available by prescription for use in treating a severe insulin (low blood sugar) reaction.
Glucose
A simple form of sugar that acts as the body's fuel. It is produced when foods are broken down in the digestive system. Glucose is carried by the blood to cells. The amount of glucose in the blood is known as the blood sugar level. Glucose is unique in being obligatory as a fuel for the brain.
Glycohemoglobin
Often also called glycosylated or glycated haemoglobin, a test that reflects the average blood sugar control for about two to three months before the test. One such test is the hemoglobin A1C or HbA1c.
Health care team
Health care professionals who help a patient manage diabetes and other conditions. This team may include a physician, registered dietitian, and certified diabetes educator (a certified diabetes educator can also be a physician, registered nurse or registered dietitian). Ophthalmologists, podiatrists, pharmacists and other specialists can also be part of the team.
Heart disease
A condition in which the heart cannot efficiently pump blood. Coronary artery disease is the most common form of heart disease. It occurs when the arteries that nourish the heart muscle narrow or become blocked. People with diabetes have a higher risk than the general population of developing heart disease.
Hyperglycemia
A condition in which blood sugar levels are too high. Symptoms include frequent urination, increased thirst, tiredness and weight loss.
Hypoglycemia (or insulin reaction)
A condition in which blood sugar levels drop too low (generally, below 3.4 mm/l or 60mg/dl). Symptoms include moodiness, numbness in the arms and hands, confusion, excess sweating, hunger and shakiness or dizziness. When left untreated, this condition can become severe and lead to unconsciousness.
Immunosuppression
Suppression of the immune system. People who receive kidney, pancreas, or islet cell transplants take immunosuppressive drugs to prevent the immune system from attacking the new organ.
Insipidus
A condition characterised by frequent and heavy urination, excessive thirst, and an overall feeling of weakness. This condition may be caused by a defect in the pituitary gland or in the kidney. In diabetes insipidus, blood glucose levels are normal.
Insulin
The hormone produced by the pancreas that helps the body use glucose. It is the ‘key' that unlocks the ‘doors' to the cells and allows glucose to enter. Once inside, glucose then fuels the cells. Controlling the entry of glucose and the manufacture of proteins are some of the many essential important actions of insulin.
Insulin Resistance
A condition whereby glucose, the body's main source of energy, is unable to enter body cells from the bloodstream in order to be utilised. This is because the hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas, is not working effectively and so is unable to provide the key to ‘unlock' the cells and allow the glucose to enter. The result is raised blood glucose and insulin levels, both of which have negative effects on the body such as increased storage of body fat due to conversion of the excess glucose to fat. It is one of the features of Type II Diabetes.
Ketoacidosis (or diabetic coma)
A severe condition caused by a lack of insulin or an elevation in stress hormones. It is marked by high blood sugar levels and ketones in the urine, and occurs much more frequently in those with type 1 diabetes.
Ketones
Acids produced when the body breaks down fat for fuel. This occurs when there is not enough insulin to permit glucose to enter the cells and fuel them or when there are too many stress hormones.
Mellitus
A condition characterised by hyperglycemia resulting from the body's inability to use blood glucose for energy. In type 1 diabetes, the pancreas no longer makes insulin and therefore blood glucose cannot enter the cells to be used for energy. In type 2 diabetes, either the pancreas does not make enough insulin or the body is unable to use insulin correctly.
mg/dl
Milligrams per deciliter. This is a unit of measure of plasma or blood glucose, used in the USA and Europe. Divide by 18 to convert to mm/l.
Myelopathy
Damage to the spinal cord found in some people with diabetes.
Nephropathy
Kidney damage. This condition can be life-threatening. When kidneys fail to function, dialysis (filtering blood through a machine) or kidney transplantations becomes necessary.
Neuropathy
Damage to the nerves. Neuropathies are often broken down into two categories. Peripheral neuropathies affect the nerves controlling sensation (and less commonly, muscles) in the feet, hands and joints. Autonomic neuropathies affect the nerve function of various organs, including those of the digestive system and urinary tract.
Obesity
An abnormal and excessive amount of body fat. Most obese people are significantly overweight, but have more body fat than muscle. Obesity is considered a chronic illness. It is on the rise and is a risk factor for type 2 diabetes particularly when the excess fat is selectively deposited around the internal abdominal organs (visceral obesity).
Oral agents (or oral hypoglycemic agents)
Medications taken orally that are designed to lower blood sugar. They are used by some people with type 2 diabetes and are not to be confused with insulin. Some make the body more sensitive to insulin and some stimulate the pancreas to produce more of its own insulin.
Pancreas
A long gland with a "head" and a "tail", located just behind the stomach. It produces enzymes for digesting food and hormones that regulate the use of fuels in the body, including insulin and glucagon. In a fully functioning pancreas, insulin is released through beta cells located in clusters called the islets of Langerhans.
Pre-diabetes
Blood sugar levels that are higher than normal but not yet high enough to be considered diabetic. Diagnosed after an oral glucose tolerance test, people with pre-diabetes are at a heightened risk for type 2 diabetes. Even at this stage, however, a healthy diet, weight loss, exercise and the insulin sensitising drugs metformin or rosiglitazone, can delay or prevent type 2 diabetes from developing.
Protein
One of three major sources of calories in the diet. Protein provides the body with material for building blood cells, body tissue, hormones, and other important substances. It is found in meats, eggs, milk and certain vegetables and starches.
Receptors
Molecules that sit on cell surfaces and play a role in chemical ‘communication'. For example, insulin cannot usher glucose into our cells unless the receptors on the cells respond properly to it.
Retinopathy
Damage to small blood vessels in the eye that can lead to vision problems. In background retinopathy, the blood vessels bulge and leak fluids into the retina, which may cause blurred vision. Proliferative retinopathy is more serious and can cause vision loss. In this condition, new blood vessels form in the retina and branch out to other areas of the eye. This can cause blood to leak into the clear fluid inside the eye and can also cause the retina to detach.
Sugar
A form of carbohydrate that provides calories and raises blood sugar levels. There are a variety of sugars, such as white, brown, confectioner's, invert and raw. Fructose, lactose, sucrose, maltose, dextrose, glucose, honey, corn syrup, molasses and sorghum are also sugars.
Sugar substitutes
Sweeteners used in place of sugar. Note that some sugar substitutes have calories and will affect blood sugar levels, such as fructose (a sugar, but often used in ‘sugar-free' products) and sugar alcohols like sorbitol and mannitol. Others have very few calories and will not affect blood sugar levels, such as saccharin, acesulfame-K, aspartame (NutraSweet) and sucralose (Splenda).
Type 1 diabetes
A form of diabetes that tends to develop before age 30 but may occur at any age. It's caused by an immune system attack on the insuling-producing beta cells of the pancreas. When the cells are destroyed, the pancreas can no longer produce insulin. People who have type 1 diabetes must take insulin to survive.
Type 2 diabetes
This form of diabetes usually occurs in people over 40 years of age but is increasingly being diagnosed in younger people. Most people who develop type 2 diabetes are insulin resistant. However, some simply cannot produce enough insulin to meet their bodies' needs and others have a combination of these problems. Some people with type 2 diabetes control the disease through diet and exercise, but most must also take oral medications or insulin.
Urine tests
Measure substances in the urine. Urine tests for ketones are the only self-administered urine tests currently recommended for people with diabetes. They measure ketones in the urine and are important in preventing ketoacidosis.
